There are thousands of Japanese expressions that are very easy to confuse with similar sounds and overlapping purposes in discussion. It helps to think of them in their correct grammatical boxes in order to try and get some overall sense.
These different boxes (and some sub-boxes) are as follows:
(1) compound particles - these are often used in substitution for more simple particles to help make complex sentences more easy to understand. As such they would co-ordinate with the predicate (e.g. the relevant verb or adjective) and their choice may be limited depending on the very concerned etc. ni tsuite and ni taishite are simple examples.
(2) parallel particles - these function to join together nouns in parallel for use in longer noun phrases. There are a surprisingly large number! e.g. oyobi, narabi ni, de are, de are, to ii to ii etc
(3) Compound sentences - these expressions join to sentences that depend on each other into longer expressions. Sub classes are:
conditional expressions
reason and purpose expressions
paradoxical and comparative expressions
correlative and common action expressions
time expressions
(4) Conjunctions - these expressions do not join two simple sentences together to make a related compound sentence as the above expressions. However they do show a relationship between one sentence and the following sentence, where the relationship can be the same as found in compound sentences (e.g one of cause and effect etc). e.g. suru to, naze nara. However they also have wider uses - e.g. tadashi, nao, tsumari, kono you ni etc.
(5) toritate expressions - these expressions are used to imply an additional "plus alpha" meaning beyond the words or expressions as stated.
Sunday, October 25, 2009
Section 31 - complex sentences 1
Complex sentences
Conditions
Within complex sentences there are those that where between the earlier clause and the latter clause a cause and effect relationship exists. A cause and effect relationship is a relationship where the occurrence of the latter clause depends on whether or not the prior clause occurs.
Hypothetical conditions - these are relationships where the truth or falsehood of the prior condition is not confirmed - e.g. If you go to Tokyo...
Anti-factual conditions - These are relationships where the condition has not actually been met, matter has not occurred but if it did then... e.g. If I had wings... If I was him...
Confirmed conditions - these are relationships where the first condition will certainly be met - e.g. when it becomes ten o'clock.
Factual conditions - these are cases where the factual conditions in the following sentence have actually been realised.
Reason and purpose
Within complex sentences explaining cause and effect there are cases where the matters in the earlier sentence have already been realised. These are reasons but may also be reasons for some matters, or basis for some judgement. There are various expressions for such reasons and also items that resemble reasons, i.e. purposes, are also considered in section 31. For example:
Basic expressions to mark reasons - kara, node, tame ni, okage de, sei de, bakari ni
Expressions for reasons that include kara and related expressions - kara koso, kara to itte, kara (ni) ha, ijou (ha), ue (ha), no dakara, mono dakara
Other expressions to mark reasons - dakeatte, dake ni, mono, to atte
Expressions of purpose - tameni, youni, tameniha, youto, beku
Paradoxes (gyakusetsu), comparisons
Causal relationships where the relationship is not what would be expected from social norms etc also exist. These are called "gyakusetsu".
Gyakusetsu can be split into three large groups - the keredo group, the noni group and the temo group as below
Kedo group - the prior and the following sentences can be aligned objectively, and in fact rather than being gyakustesu they are closer in nature to comparison.
Noni group - in these cases the matters that can be foreseen from the first sentence and the actual matters in the second sentence do not agree at all, so these have the most paradoxical nature of the three groups.
Temo group - in this case even though the conditions in the prior clause is met, the matters in the second clause are still not met. These expressions have the nature of hypothetical clauses.
Part 32 of the book considers gyakusetsu but also considers the similar concept of comparison. Expressions classified in this part are as follows:
kedo group - kedo, keredomo, ga, monono, tohaie, noga, wariniha, nishiteha, to omottara, to omoikyam tsutsu (mo), ni hanshite, ni hikikae
comparative forms - hanmen, oppou (de), no ni taishte, to chigatte, touttekawatte, ni hikikae
noni group - noni, nimo kakarawazu, kuse ni, tokoro wo, mono wo, no wo, nagara (mo), toiedomo, mo kamawazu
temo group - temo, (yo)uga-maiga, niseyo/nishiro, ta tokoro de, [ni/to]shitemo, ni shitatte, de are
Commonly occuring and correlative relationships
Here the following sorts of relationships are dealt with
(1) te
(2) naide, nakute, zuni, zu, naku
(3) expressions that show one action occuring along with another action - nagara, tsutsu, tsuide ni, katawara, gatera, katagata
(4) expressions which show with one action taking place, in addition a further separate action takes place - dake denaku, bakari denaku, bakari ka, nomi narazu, ni todomarazu
(5) expressions which show along with the development of one action, another action also develops (a correlative relationship) - ba-hodo, ni tsurete, ni shitagatte, ni tomonatte, totomo ni
Time expressions
Here we look at a number of time expressions
(1) Expressions that show that at the time that one matter occurs, another matter also occurs - toki (ni), sai (ni), ori(ni), aida (ni), uchi (ni), saichuuni
(2) Expressions that emphasise that two matters occur (almost) at the same time - to douji ni, ta (ka) to omou to, gahayaika, yainaya, nari, ka-naika no uchi ni, tatotan (ni), shidai, sobakara
(3) Expressions that show that one matter occurs after another matter - te kara, te hajemete, te kara denai to, ta ue de, te irai, tekara to iumono.
Conditions
Within complex sentences there are those that where between the earlier clause and the latter clause a cause and effect relationship exists. A cause and effect relationship is a relationship where the occurrence of the latter clause depends on whether or not the prior clause occurs.
Hypothetical conditions - these are relationships where the truth or falsehood of the prior condition is not confirmed - e.g. If you go to Tokyo...
Anti-factual conditions - These are relationships where the condition has not actually been met, matter has not occurred but if it did then... e.g. If I had wings... If I was him...
Confirmed conditions - these are relationships where the first condition will certainly be met - e.g. when it becomes ten o'clock.
Factual conditions - these are cases where the factual conditions in the following sentence have actually been realised.
Reason and purpose
Within complex sentences explaining cause and effect there are cases where the matters in the earlier sentence have already been realised. These are reasons but may also be reasons for some matters, or basis for some judgement. There are various expressions for such reasons and also items that resemble reasons, i.e. purposes, are also considered in section 31. For example:
Basic expressions to mark reasons - kara, node, tame ni, okage de, sei de, bakari ni
Expressions for reasons that include kara and related expressions - kara koso, kara to itte, kara (ni) ha, ijou (ha), ue (ha), no dakara, mono dakara
Other expressions to mark reasons - dakeatte, dake ni, mono, to atte
Expressions of purpose - tameni, youni, tameniha, youto, beku
Paradoxes (gyakusetsu), comparisons
Causal relationships where the relationship is not what would be expected from social norms etc also exist. These are called "gyakusetsu".
Gyakusetsu can be split into three large groups - the keredo group, the noni group and the temo group as below
Kedo group - the prior and the following sentences can be aligned objectively, and in fact rather than being gyakustesu they are closer in nature to comparison.
Noni group - in these cases the matters that can be foreseen from the first sentence and the actual matters in the second sentence do not agree at all, so these have the most paradoxical nature of the three groups.
Temo group - in this case even though the conditions in the prior clause is met, the matters in the second clause are still not met. These expressions have the nature of hypothetical clauses.
Part 32 of the book considers gyakusetsu but also considers the similar concept of comparison. Expressions classified in this part are as follows:
kedo group - kedo, keredomo, ga, monono, tohaie, noga, wariniha, nishiteha, to omottara, to omoikyam tsutsu (mo), ni hanshite, ni hikikae
comparative forms - hanmen, oppou (de), no ni taishte, to chigatte, touttekawatte, ni hikikae
noni group - noni, nimo kakarawazu, kuse ni, tokoro wo, mono wo, no wo, nagara (mo), toiedomo, mo kamawazu
temo group - temo, (yo)uga-maiga, niseyo/nishiro, ta tokoro de, [ni/to]shitemo, ni shitatte, de are
Commonly occuring and correlative relationships
Here the following sorts of relationships are dealt with
(1) te
(2) naide, nakute, zuni, zu, naku
(3) expressions that show one action occuring along with another action - nagara, tsutsu, tsuide ni, katawara, gatera, katagata
(4) expressions which show with one action taking place, in addition a further separate action takes place - dake denaku, bakari denaku, bakari ka, nomi narazu, ni todomarazu
(5) expressions which show along with the development of one action, another action also develops (a correlative relationship) - ba-hodo, ni tsurete, ni shitagatte, ni tomonatte, totomo ni
Time expressions
Here we look at a number of time expressions
(1) Expressions that show that at the time that one matter occurs, another matter also occurs - toki (ni), sai (ni), ori(ni), aida (ni), uchi (ni), saichuuni
(2) Expressions that emphasise that two matters occur (almost) at the same time - to douji ni, ta (ka) to omou to, gahayaika, yainaya, nari, ka-naika no uchi ni, tatotan (ni), shidai, sobakara
(3) Expressions that show that one matter occurs after another matter - te kara, te hajemete, te kara denai to, ta ue de, te irai, tekara to iumono.
Compund Particles 3 - means, cause, basis, source of information - ni yotte, wo tsujite, wo motte
The particle de represents (1) place, (2) materials, (3) means, tools, (4) cause or reason, (5) scope, (6) conclusion(?), (7) contents so has various meanings. In the way, for example, that when de is attached to park, you can understand it means place where action occurs you can interpret the use of de from the nature of the noun that precedes it.
However because de has many meanings, it can sometimes be difficult to understand. Especially in long sentences, if you use a form for de that is more specialised and easier to understand then the relationship between the noun and the predicate concerned is more easy to understand. Compound particles are used for this purpose.
In this section 3 expressions with the meaning of de, especially in relation to means, cause, evidence are dealt with. One part of this includes forms such as okage de that us used to modify nouns and express cause, reason in compound sentences. These so called connective particles are dealt with here but more details can be found in section 31.
However because de has many meanings, it can sometimes be difficult to understand. Especially in long sentences, if you use a form for de that is more specialised and easier to understand then the relationship between the noun and the predicate concerned is more easy to understand. Compound particles are used for this purpose.
In this section 3 expressions with the meaning of de, especially in relation to means, cause, evidence are dealt with. One part of this includes forms such as okage de that us used to modify nouns and express cause, reason in compound sentences. These so called connective particles are dealt with here but more details can be found in section 31.
Compund particles 1 - ni matsuwaru, ni kakawaru
Expressions that represent subjects of a relationship - part 2
（１）彼はこの城にまつわる不思議な話をし始めた。
（２）彼は国連で軍縮にかかわる業務に従事しています
As forms which are followed by verbal predicates, they do not have te forms.
Ni matsuwaru is followed by (modifies) nouns such as talk, legend, rumor, anecdote, story and so marks things that are related to these talks, legends, rumors etc.
Ni matsuwaru can be replaced by ni tsuite no but ni matsuwaru implies an indirect relationship (between the story and the item concerned). Accordingly ni matsuwaru would not normally be used with "question" or "theory".
山田議員の環境問題｛Oについての/Xにまつわる｝質問は新聞でも大きく取り上げられた。
Although you can find ni matsuwaru as a verb in the dictionary it is never so used at the end of a sentence but always as a compound particle
（１）彼はこの城にまつわる不思議な話をし始めた。
（２）彼は国連で軍縮にかかわる業務に従事しています
As forms which are followed by verbal predicates, they do not have te forms.
Ni matsuwaru is followed by (modifies) nouns such as talk, legend, rumor, anecdote, story and so marks things that are related to these talks, legends, rumors etc.
Ni matsuwaru can be replaced by ni tsuite no but ni matsuwaru implies an indirect relationship (between the story and the item concerned). Accordingly ni matsuwaru would not normally be used with "question" or "theory".
山田議員の環境問題｛Oについての/Xにまつわる｝質問は新聞でも大きく取り上げられた。
Although you can find ni matsuwaru as a verb in the dictionary it is never so used at the end of a sentence but always as a compound particle
Compound Particles - 1 - nitsuite, ni kanshite, wo megutte
Ni tsuite, ni kanshite, wo megutte - expressions that represent a target which has a connection
（１）最近、人生について考えることが多い。
（２）彼は消化器の治療に関して自信を持っていた。
（３）国会の会期延長をめぐって与野党が議論した。
? 最近、人生に関して考えることが多い。
X 講演会では環境問題をめぐって話しましょう。- not natural because there is a single speaker and wo megutte implies debate etc among multiple parties.
（１）最近、人生について考えることが多い。
（２）彼は消化器の治療に関して自信を持っていた。
（３）国会の会期延長をめぐって与野党が議論した。
- Ni tsuite and ni kanshite represent the targets of the action or state represented by the predicate.
- For ni tsuite, predicates such as think, speak, talk about, state, listen, write, check and other verbs related to the handling of the information according to language are used. For adjectives kuwashii and muchi da 無知だ can be used.
- ni kanshite can in many cases be used in place of ni tsuite. However it is somewhat unnatural to use ni kanshite with verbs related to thought.
? 最近、人生に関して考えることが多い。
- wo megutte is used with verbs such as debate, battle, oppose, and similar verbs and represents something that is the target of such conflict. wo megutte includes the sense of a the length of the process to reach a conclusion..
- wo megutte is natural for verbs that do not include a sense of information from language such as battle or conflict. For example in (3) above wo megutte is more natural.
- wo meguttte is not appropriate for a verb the subject of which is an individual unit.
X 講演会では環境問題をめぐって話しましょう。- not natural because there is a single speaker and wo megutte implies debate etc among multiple parties.
- Ni tsuite and ni kanshite can also be used instead of wa, where they are short for ni tsuite ieba or in kanshite ieba.
- ni tsuite can also be used to represent a ratio
Compound Particles - 1 - Subject - ni taishite
Among particles that represent the relationship between the predicate and noun phrases we have ga, o, ni, he, to, kara, yo, made, de. However we also have forms such as ni tsuite and ni yotte which are used instead of these particles in order to represent the relationship between noun phrases and the predicate. This sort of forms that correspond to particles are called 'compound particles'.
Many of these compound particles originaly come from [particle + verb in active form] and among them ni or wo together with a verb in the te-form is common. Also forms such as no okage de made of [no + noun + other particle] also exist.
There are thought to be two main reasons why why compound particles are used. One reason is to make more clear the meaning of particles that have a lot of types of meaning such as de for example. A further reason is to express a meaning that cannot be expressed (or is difficult to express) with normal particles.
In section 2 we will take a look at particles which represent the subject of wo and ni. Note that particles follow the form of the predicate. When a noun follows on as in [X toshokan de benkyou] then particles cannot be used without any change. Compound particles are the same in that there are forms that are followed by a predicate and there are forms that are followed by a noun. In this section 2 we look mostly at ones that are followed by a predicate and in section 5 look at ones that can be followed by a noun.
~ni taishite - an expression showing the subject to which a movement, emotion or attitude is directed.
Ni taishite originally comes from ni taisuru. Ni taisuru means "face each other" so expresses a direction to which, without touching, a situation or action faces. The meaning of ni taishite explained above comes from this.
The phrases ni taisuru and ni taishte no which can be used to modify nouns can be in general be used when the action or attitude to which they are directed is somewhat broader. Contrast the following phrases:
不良グループのA君「に対して/に対するの」暴行は執拗に続いた。
X 不良グループのA君「に対して」暴行した。 - i.e. action is too general and wide in relation to A
子供「に対して/に対するの」愛情は尽きることがない。
X 子供「に対して」愛する。 - i.e. feeling is too broad for the te form
（１）市民団体は知事の無責任な行動に対して抗議した。
（２）敵国に対して出された要求はすべて拒否された。
山下は彼女に対して冷たかった
In passive constructions such as (2) above the when the subject of the verb can be easily confused then through the use of ni taishite then the subject of the sentence can be clearly expressed. Without the ni taishite, then 2 could mean "The demands which were made of [the subject] by the enemy [and which caused the subject trouble] were denied [by the subject]" but it is clear that it means "The demands that were made of the enemy [by the subject] were denied [by the enemy].
A little extra information
Many of these compound particles originaly come from [particle + verb in active form] and among them ni or wo together with a verb in the te-form is common. Also forms such as no okage de made of [no + noun + other particle] also exist.
There are thought to be two main reasons why why compound particles are used. One reason is to make more clear the meaning of particles that have a lot of types of meaning such as de for example. A further reason is to express a meaning that cannot be expressed (or is difficult to express) with normal particles.
In section 2 we will take a look at particles which represent the subject of wo and ni. Note that particles follow the form of the predicate. When a noun follows on as in [X toshokan de benkyou] then particles cannot be used without any change. Compound particles are the same in that there are forms that are followed by a predicate and there are forms that are followed by a noun. In this section 2 we look mostly at ones that are followed by a predicate and in section 5 look at ones that can be followed by a noun.
~ni taishite - an expression showing the subject to which a movement, emotion or attitude is directed.
Ni taishite originally comes from ni taisuru. Ni taisuru means "face each other" so expresses a direction to which, without touching, a situation or action faces. The meaning of ni taishite explained above comes from this.
The phrases ni taisuru and ni taishte no which can be used to modify nouns can be in general be used when the action or attitude to which they are directed is somewhat broader. Contrast the following phrases:
不良グループのA君「に対して/に対するの」暴行は執拗に続いた。
X 不良グループのA君「に対して」暴行した。 - i.e. action is too general and wide in relation to A
子供「に対して/に対するの」愛情は尽きることがない。
X 子供「に対して」愛する。 - i.e. feeling is too broad for the te form
（１）市民団体は知事の無責任な行動に対して抗議した。
（２）敵国に対して出された要求はすべて拒否された。
- ni taishite represents the subject to which an action, emotion or attitude is directed.
- In many cases ni can be said instead of ni taishite
- ni taishite cannot be used in the following circumstances
- subjects that are represented by wo
- out of subjects that are represented by ni, ones that an action will directly effect
- 田中はいやみを言う上司｛Oを/Xに対して｝そっと触れた。
- を別れに、彼女のほほ｛Oに/Xに対して｝キスをした。
山下は彼女に対して冷たかった
In passive constructions such as (2) above the when the subject of the verb can be easily confused then through the use of ni taishite then the subject of the sentence can be clearly expressed. Without the ni taishite, then 2 could mean "The demands which were made of [the subject] by the enemy [and which caused the subject trouble] were denied [by the subject]" but it is clear that it means "The demands that were made of the enemy [by the subject] were denied [by the enemy].
A little extra information
Monday, August 24, 2009
ばかりに simply because; just because; simply on account of - conjunction
A conjunction indicating that a single factors causes a negative situation.
Formation:
(i) Vinf.past ・食べたばかりに
(ii) Adj(i)inf ・難し｛い・かった｝ばかりに
(iii) Adj(na)stem・ 不便｛な・である・だった・であった｝ばかりに
(iv) N・先生{である・だった・であった｝ばかりに
（１）僕が一言変なことを言ったばかりに彼女との関係は悪くなったしまった。
Just because I said one strange thing to her, my relationship with her deteriorated.
（２）あの日たまたま休んでいたばかりに、大事な連絡を聞きそびれた。
I missed a really important announcement just because I happened to be absent that day.
（３）お金がなっかたばかりに、映画もろくに見られなかった。
I couldnt even go to the movies, just because I didnt have any money.
Notes
(1) The conjunction ばかりに is used to indicate that a single factor causes a negative situation.
(2) The main clause (i.e. not the ばかりに clause?!) indicates the resulting negative situation, but when the ばかりに clause takes the auxiliary adjective ～たい the main clause can indicate effort. For example...
あいつは目立ちたいばかりに似合わない派手な背広を着ている。
He is wearing a gaudy suit jacket that doesnt suit him just because he is so eager to stand out.
(3) If ばかりに is preceded by と it has a totally different meaning "as if someone were saying"
彼は今がチャンスとばかりに彼女に言い寄った。
As if he was saying "now is my chance" he made advances towards her.
Formation:
(i) Vinf.past ・食べたばかりに
(ii) Adj(i)inf ・難し｛い・かった｝ばかりに
(iii) Adj(na)stem・ 不便｛な・である・だった・であった｝ばかりに
(iv) N・先生{である・だった・であった｝ばかりに
（１）僕が一言変なことを言ったばかりに彼女との関係は悪くなったしまった。
Just because I said one strange thing to her, my relationship with her deteriorated.
（２）あの日たまたま休んでいたばかりに、大事な連絡を聞きそびれた。
I missed a really important announcement just because I happened to be absent that day.
（３）お金がなっかたばかりに、映画もろくに見られなかった。
I couldnt even go to the movies, just because I didnt have any money.
Notes
(1) The conjunction ばかりに is used to indicate that a single factor causes a negative situation.
(2) The main clause (i.e. not the ばかりに clause?!) indicates the resulting negative situation, but when the ばかりに clause takes the auxiliary adjective ～たい the main clause can indicate effort. For example...
あいつは目立ちたいばかりに似合わない派手な背広を着ている。
He is wearing a gaudy suit jacket that doesnt suit him just because he is so eager to stand out.
(3) If ばかりに is preceded by と it has a totally different meaning "as if someone were saying"
彼は今がチャンスとばかりに彼女に言い寄った。
As if he was saying "now is my chance" he made advances towards her.
だけに・as one would expect; so (naturally); because - phrase
A phrase that carries the idea "as one would expect".
Formation:
Vinf だけに・教えている/教えていただけに
Adj(i)inf だけに・若い/若かった だけに
Adj(na)stem だけに・上手な/上手だった だけに
N だけに・先生・せんせいだった だけに
（１）ビルは元フットボール選手だけに足が速い。
Bill used to be a football player and, as one would expect, he runs fast.
（２）ホワイトさんは長い間日本に住んでいただけに日本のことをよく知っている。
Mr White lived a long time in Japan, so naturally he is very familiar with things related to Japan.
（３）彼は元アナウーンサーだけに声がよく通る。
He used to be an announcer, soo naturally his voice carries well.
S1 だけに S2 is used when S2 is something that can be expected from S1 where S1 represents a fact.
The adverb さすが sometimes occurs with だけに. This adverb indicates that the speaker is impressed by what S2 represents. Note S2 must be something impressive, so use with an unimpressive S2 is ungrammatical. さすが appears in S1 before or after the topic.
彼はさすが元アナウーンサーだけに声がよく通る。
さすが彼は元アナウーンサーだけに声がよく通る
Related expressions
だっけあって is synonymous with だけに when they are used to meean "as one would expect". However だっけあった cannot be used when S2 represents something undesireable or when the whole sentence is about a negative expecation.
Formation:
Vinf だけに・教えている/教えていただけに
Adj(i)inf だけに・若い/若かった だけに
Adj(na)stem だけに・上手な/上手だった だけに
N だけに・先生・せんせいだった だけに
（１）ビルは元フットボール選手だけに足が速い。
Bill used to be a football player and, as one would expect, he runs fast.
（２）ホワイトさんは長い間日本に住んでいただけに日本のことをよく知っている。
Mr White lived a long time in Japan, so naturally he is very familiar with things related to Japan.
（３）彼は元アナウーンサーだけに声がよく通る。
He used to be an announcer, soo naturally his voice carries well.
S1 だけに S2 is used when S2 is something that can be expected from S1 where S1 represents a fact.
The adverb さすが sometimes occurs with だけに. This adverb indicates that the speaker is impressed by what S2 represents. Note S2 must be something impressive, so use with an unimpressive S2 is ungrammatical. さすが appears in S1 before or after the topic.
彼はさすが元アナウーンサーだけに声がよく通る。
さすが彼は元アナウーンサーだけに声がよく通る
Related expressions
だっけあって is synonymous with だけに when they are used to meean "as one would expect". However だっけあった cannot be used when S2 represents something undesireable or when the whole sentence is about a negative expecation.
Thursday, July 9, 2009
で 格
There are other uses for で besides marking location.
(1) Scope 範囲
日本では、何月がいちばん暑いんですか。
ヨーロッパ園で最も南の島の山の中を歩いていた。
スタッフの間で、あれはいったい誰だろうとひとしきり話題になった。
At first glance, で above looks like で used for the place of an activity. However this is not the case and the predicate is not limited to verbs used for activity only. For example in the above sentences 最も南（の） is the predicate, not 歩く。
(2) Standard 基準
１ダースとは１２で一組ということだ。
(3) Limit 限度
あと１ページで読み終わる
(4) Time limit, deadline 期限
来年の誕生日で免許の有効期限が切れる。 Represents a continuing thing coming to an end.
(5) Ingredients 材料
カルパッチョは、生の肉や魚で作る。
(6) Tools 道具
ペンで書く。
(7) Means 手段
現金で払う。
(8) Cause, reason 原因、理由
何年も前のことになるけれども、ある映画の仕事でニューカレドニアにいった。
(9) Situation 様態
早足で歩く。
(10) Subject of action or deed 動作・行為の主体
アナウンッサーたちでテニスをすることもある。
何十人ものスタッフで島の中をあちこち動き回って撮影を続けた。
で above can be replaced by が grammatically as the representative of the subject. There are other set phrases using で in a similar manner but with は only. For example, 今日では、現在では、
(11) Point in time at which an action takes place 動作の行われる時点
「カラオケ」ということばは、今ではもう英語になっている。
(1) Scope 範囲
日本では、何月がいちばん暑いんですか。
ヨーロッパ園で最も南の島の山の中を歩いていた。
スタッフの間で、あれはいったい誰だろうとひとしきり話題になった。
At first glance, で above looks like で used for the place of an activity. However this is not the case and the predicate is not limited to verbs used for activity only. For example in the above sentences 最も南（の） is the predicate, not 歩く。
(2) Standard 基準
１ダースとは１２で一組ということだ。
(3) Limit 限度
あと１ページで読み終わる
(4) Time limit, deadline 期限
来年の誕生日で免許の有効期限が切れる。 Represents a continuing thing coming to an end.
(5) Ingredients 材料
カルパッチョは、生の肉や魚で作る。
(6) Tools 道具
ペンで書く。
(7) Means 手段
現金で払う。
(8) Cause, reason 原因、理由
何年も前のことになるけれども、ある映画の仕事でニューカレドニアにいった。
(9) Situation 様態
早足で歩く。
(10) Subject of action or deed 動作・行為の主体
アナウンッサーたちでテニスをすることもある。
何十人ものスタッフで島の中をあちこち動き回って撮影を続けた。
で above can be replaced by が grammatically as the representative of the subject. There are other set phrases using で in a similar manner but with は only. For example, 今日では、現在では、
(11) Point in time at which an action takes place 動作の行われる時点
「カラオケ」ということばは、今ではもう英語になっている。
に and で used in relation to places
で is used to mark a location with verbs that involve action. For example, 遊ぶ、読む、待つ
に is used to mark a location with verbs that involve existance. いる、ある、存在する
As a rare exception, with some verbs the result is a place that became a place where you could exist, に may still be used. For example 無人島に小屋を作る。
に is used to mark a location with verbs that involve existance. いる、ある、存在する
As a rare exception, with some verbs the result is a place that became a place where you could exist, に may still be used. For example 無人島に小屋を作る。
を格
を has three basic functions. Firstly marking the object of transitive verbs, secondly marking the space or point of passage through which movement occurs and thirdly marking the point of origination of movement.
Verbs used in the second function may be 渡る、通る、歩く.
Verbs used in the third function may include 出る、降りる、発つ
Verbs used in the second function may be 渡る、通る、歩く.
Verbs used in the third function may include 出る、降りる、発つ
Monday, July 6, 2009
～はおろか・not to mention
～は当然として（されに～も）・～は普通としても
AはおろかB means "A of course, but B as well". The second clause describes a negative situation or circumstance, typically using 「無い・～ない・少ない」. Emphasises difference in nuance by citing normal-level A, followed by the less significant B.
（１） 彼の部屋には、エアコンはあろか、扇風機もなかった。
In his room, he doesn't have air conditioning nor even a fan.
（２）こんな成績では進学はあろか、卒業だって危ない。
With this rank his going to another school and even his graduation are at risk.
（３）腰が痛くて、歩くのはあろか、座るのもつらい。
My back aches and not only walking but even sitting hurts.
（４）この地球上には、電気、ガスはあろか、水道さえない生活をしている人々がまだまだたくさんいる。
On this plant, there are a lot of people carrying on their life not only with out electricity or gas but even without running water.
AはおろかB means "A of course, but B as well". The second clause describes a negative situation or circumstance, typically using 「無い・～ない・少ない」. Emphasises difference in nuance by citing normal-level A, followed by the less significant B.
（１） 彼の部屋には、エアコンはあろか、扇風機もなかった。
In his room, he doesn't have air conditioning nor even a fan.
（２）こんな成績では進学はあろか、卒業だって危ない。
With this rank his going to another school and even his graduation are at risk.
（３）腰が痛くて、歩くのはあろか、座るのもつらい。
My back aches and not only walking but even sitting hurts.
（４）この地球上には、電気、ガスはあろか、水道さえない生活をしている人々がまだまだたくさんいる。
On this plant, there are a lot of people carrying on their life not only with out electricity or gas but even without running water.
～にもまして more than
～以上に
Although one thing is true, something else is even more so. In the form "interrogative + にもまして"
it means "more than anything", "more than anyone" or "more than one time".
Means "...is usually true for..., but...is even more ...". Expresses a further increase in amount or degree of some unusual characteristic.
（１）彼女の一言は、何にもまして私を勇気づけてくれました。
Her words more than anything gave me courage.
（２）足の痛みは、以前にもましてひどくなり、ついに手術をすることになった。
The pain in my foot, more than before has got worse and finally I decided to have surgery.
（３）木村さん、今日はデートがあるらしく、普段にもまして化粧が濃い。
Kimura-san, it looks like you have a date today, your make up is much thicker than normal.
（４）今年の港祭りは、例年にもまして賑わっている。
This year the port festival is, more than normal years, buzzing.
（５）林さん、何かいいことがあったみたいで、今日はいつにもまして陽気だ。
It looks like something good has happened to Kobayashi-san and today more than normal they are really cheerful.
Although one thing is true, something else is even more so. In the form "interrogative + にもまして"
it means "more than anything", "more than anyone" or "more than one time".
Means "...is usually true for..., but...is even more ...". Expresses a further increase in amount or degree of some unusual characteristic.
（１）彼女の一言は、何にもまして私を勇気づけてくれました。
Her words more than anything gave me courage.
（２）足の痛みは、以前にもましてひどくなり、ついに手術をすることになった。
The pain in my foot, more than before has got worse and finally I decided to have surgery.
（３）木村さん、今日はデートがあるらしく、普段にもまして化粧が濃い。
Kimura-san, it looks like you have a date today, your make up is much thicker than normal.
（４）今年の港祭りは、例年にもまして賑わっている。
This year the port festival is, more than normal years, buzzing.
（５）林さん、何かいいことがあったみたいで、今日はいつにもまして陽気だ。
It looks like something good has happened to Kobayashi-san and today more than normal they are really cheerful.
～にひきかえ in contrast to
～とは反対に・とは大きく変わって
Expression that takes two things with contrastive qualities and compares them. Used to make a comparison in which one thing is taken as a plus and the other a minus in order to make a statement that says "in contrast with and opposite to A, B is...". Often implies a certain dissatisfaction with the negatively-evaluated object, and so therefore constitutes criticism or complaint.
Subjective feelings about something directly opposite or vastly different from what comes before pattern. Form にたいして objectively contrasts what comes before and after pattern from an interim position.
（１）まじめで無口な兄にひきかえ、弟の方は落ち着きがなく、いつもふざけてばかりいる。
In contrast to my serious and reticent older brother, my youunger brother is never calm and always playing around.
（２）スポーツや芸術では、国際的に活躍する日本人も多い。それにひきかえ、日本の政治家ノレベルはあまり低すぎる。
There are a lot of internationally active Japanese in the field of sports and entertainment. In contrast Japanese politicians rank is just too low.
（３）兄は節約家のにひきかえ、弟は本当に浪費家だ。
In contrast to my frugal older brother, my younger brother is a spendthrift.
Expression that takes two things with contrastive qualities and compares them. Used to make a comparison in which one thing is taken as a plus and the other a minus in order to make a statement that says "in contrast with and opposite to A, B is...". Often implies a certain dissatisfaction with the negatively-evaluated object, and so therefore constitutes criticism or complaint.
Subjective feelings about something directly opposite or vastly different from what comes before pattern. Form にたいして objectively contrasts what comes before and after pattern from an interim position.
（１）まじめで無口な兄にひきかえ、弟の方は落ち着きがなく、いつもふざけてばかりいる。
In contrast to my serious and reticent older brother, my youunger brother is never calm and always playing around.
（２）スポーツや芸術では、国際的に活躍する日本人も多い。それにひきかえ、日本の政治家ノレベルはあまり低すぎる。
There are a lot of internationally active Japanese in the field of sports and entertainment. In contrast Japanese politicians rank is just too low.
（３）兄は節約家のにひきかえ、弟は本当に浪費家だ。
In contrast to my frugal older brother, my younger brother is a spendthrift.
Sunday, July 5, 2009
～ないまでも・can't go as far as; even if can't go as far as to
～まではできないが・～まではできなくても・～ないにしても・～ないとしても
This expression means "even if (some level of satisfaction/fulfillment) is not attained". The second clause expresses the minimum level that would satisfy the speaker.
Even if something can't attain a certain level, at least is attaining slightly lower level. Nuance of "at least" or "at the minimum".
（１）毎年とは言わないまでも、たまには海外旅行に行きたい。
（２）快適とは言えないまでも、２，３週間滞在するには十分な部屋だった。
（３）半額とはいかないまでも、せめて３割引くらいにしてほしい。
（４）その本を読めば、答えは見つからないまでも、何かヒントは得られるはずです。
（５）損をしないまでも、儲けは殆んどなかった。
This expression means "even if (some level of satisfaction/fulfillment) is not attained". The second clause expresses the minimum level that would satisfy the speaker.
Even if something can't attain a certain level, at least is attaining slightly lower level. Nuance of "at least" or "at the minimum".
（１）毎年とは言わないまでも、たまには海外旅行に行きたい。
（２）快適とは言えないまでも、２，３週間滞在するには十分な部屋だった。
（３）半額とはいかないまでも、せめて３割引くらいにしてほしい。
（４）その本を読めば、答えは見つからないまでも、何かヒントは得られるはずです。
（５）損をしないまでも、儲けは殆んどなかった。
ただ～のみ・ただ～ばかり・～のみならず; just only/not only
ただ～のみ・ただ～ばかり＝ただ～だけ
（ただ）～のみならず＝ただ～だけでなく
The first two expressions mean "just/only~" and that there is nothing else involved. They are used to emphasise a situation where all the focus is on one point only.
The third expression means "not only~" and expresses the fact that the scope of the subject extends much further. This is a written expression.
（１）今はただ、息子の無事を祈るのみです。
（２）心配なのは、ただ、そのことのみです。
（３）ただ文句を言うばかりでは、何も解決されません。
（４）彼はただ勇敢であるのみならず、優しい心の持ち主でもあった。
（５）彼女の作品には、女性のみならず、男性のフーンも多い。
（６）今や彼女の活動範囲は、国内のみならず、海外にも広がっている。
勇敢・ゆうかん・
（ただ）～のみならず＝ただ～だけでなく
The first two expressions mean "just/only~" and that there is nothing else involved. They are used to emphasise a situation where all the focus is on one point only.
The third expression means "not only~" and expresses the fact that the scope of the subject extends much further. This is a written expression.
（１）今はただ、息子の無事を祈るのみです。
（２）心配なのは、ただ、そのことのみです。
（３）ただ文句を言うばかりでは、何も解決されません。
（４）彼はただ勇敢であるのみならず、優しい心の持ち主でもあった。
（５）彼女の作品には、女性のみならず、男性のフーンも多い。
（６）今や彼女の活動範囲は、国内のみならず、海外にも広がっている。
勇敢・ゆうかん・
～と相まって・go hand in hand with;
～と結びついて・～と影響し合って
This expression means "combined with~" and is used to indicate that a certain trend or situation occurs or is intensified as the result of two things happening in conjunction. The second element is added to the first to increase the intensity of result.
（１）その古い神社は、濃い霧と相まって、幻想的な雰囲気に包まれていた。
（２）好天とあいまって、この週末はどこも大変な混雑にあった。
（３）この物語は、主人公の幼い女の子の可愛らしさも相まって、戦争の悲惨さを強く印象づける作品となっている。
（４）多くの国々は、水や空気の汚染と相まって、環境破壊が進んでいる。
（５）コーチの指導力と選手のやる気が相まって、優勝できた。
（６）実力と運とが相まって、彼を成功に導いた。
This expression means "combined with~" and is used to indicate that a certain trend or situation occurs or is intensified as the result of two things happening in conjunction. The second element is added to the first to increase the intensity of result.
（１）その古い神社は、濃い霧と相まって、幻想的な雰囲気に包まれていた。
（２）好天とあいまって、この週末はどこも大変な混雑にあった。
（３）この物語は、主人公の幼い女の子の可愛らしさも相まって、戦争の悲惨さを強く印象づける作品となっている。
（４）多くの国々は、水や空気の汚染と相まって、環境破壊が進んでいる。
（５）コーチの指導力と選手のやる気が相まって、優勝できた。
（６）実力と運とが相まって、彼を成功に導いた。
～とばかり(に)・virtually seems to; as if
いかにも～というような様子で Some attitude or appearance is nto conveyed verbally, but appears a certain way through actions. Describes other people so not used to describe speaker. Usually clause following conveys forceful, extreme action. "really appear/seem to~"
（１）あの子はお母さんなんか嫌いとばかりに、家を出ていってしまいました。
（２）皆が集まって相談していると、彼女は私には関係ないとばかりに横を向いてしまった。
（１）あの子はお母さんなんか嫌いとばかりに、家を出ていってしまいました。
（２）皆が集まって相談していると、彼女は私には関係ないとばかりに横を向いてしまった。
～ずくめ totally immersed in, all in...
Suffix that expresses the fact that "it was...all the way from start to finish" or that "everything was all one way". To be filled with something, or one thing after another happens. Used for things, colors and events. Most often used when a person is inundated with nice things.
（１）彼女は派手好きで、いつも全身ブランドずくめだ。
（２）早朝の散歩は、ダイエットにも健康にもいいから、いいことずくめだ。
（３）うちの学校は規則ずくめで、窮屈でしかたがない。
（１）彼女は派手好きで、いつも全身ブランドずくめだ。
（２）早朝の散歩は、ダイエットにも健康にもいいから、いいことずくめだ。
（３）うちの学校は規則ずくめで、窮屈でしかたがない。
～（が）ごとし・～（が）ごとく・～（が）ごとき ～ごとき（に） like, as
～ごとし is an old expression equivalent in meaning to ～ようだ it is often used in idiomatic expressions. When － appended to a verb it can also be used bby adding ～が。 ～ごときに apphends to a word describing people with a putdown implied and is used with the same meaning as ~なんかに. Humble if appended to 私.
（１） 光陰矢のごとし （ことわざ 月日は、矢が飛ぶようにあっという間に過ぎる。
（２）彼は眠るがごとく安らかに、最期の時を迎えた。
（３）例のごとく、歓迎会の２次会はカラオケです。
（４）飛ぶがごとく、彼は走っていった。
（５）私ごとき未熟者にこのような大役が務めるかどうか心配です。
（６）おまえごときに俺の気持ちがわかってたまるか？
（７）陽子さんは、読んで字のごとし、明るい性格の子です。
最期・さいご・
（１） 光陰矢のごとし （ことわざ 月日は、矢が飛ぶようにあっという間に過ぎる。
（２）彼は眠るがごとく安らかに、最期の時を迎えた。
（３）例のごとく、歓迎会の２次会はカラオケです。
（４）飛ぶがごとく、彼は走っていった。
（５）私ごとき未熟者にこのような大役が務めるかどうか心配です。
（６）おまえごときに俺の気持ちがわかってたまるか？
（７）陽子さんは、読んで字のごとし、明るい性格の子です。
最期・さいご・
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